PROBLEM TREE (ANALYSIS)
INTRODUCTION
The problem tree analysis belongs to the family of participatory planning techniques, in which all parties involved identify and analyze the needs together, creating ownership and commitment among the parties involved, for example, beneficiaries, implementing organizations, and local  governments .
It is the phase in which the negative aspects of a given situation are identified, establishing the cause and effect relationship between the observed problems .The problem analysis is important  with regard to project planning  since it strongly influences the design of all possible interventions (MDF (2005):MDF TOOL: Problem Tree Analysis. MDF: Training and Consultancy).
The problem analysis includes:
a)	Definition of the framework and the subject of analysis.
b)	Identification of problems faced by target groups and beneficiaries
c)	Visualization of the problems in form of a diagram, called “problem Tree” to help analyze and clarify cause-effect relationships.
Like any other tree, the problem tree has three parts: a trunk, roots and ranches. The trunk is the main problem. The roots represent the causes of the core problem while the branches represent its effect. (Adapted from EUROPEAN COMMISSION 2004 AND MDF 2005).
 The following figure shows an example of a problem tree related to High Incidences of Malnutrition in under five children.
APPLICATION.
The above problem tree analysis is important to many forms of project planning in order to improve the incidences of malnutrition in the communities, and it is mainly used by development agencies. A reduced incidence of malnutrition is addressing the real needs of the beneficiaries and is therefore based upon a correct and complete analysis of the existing situation.
 Applying the problem tree method supports the identification of the main problems along with their causes and effects. This method therefore helps project planners to formulate clear and manageable objectives and how to improve and reduce the incidences of malnutrition more sustainable. The process can be a useful method in building a community’s awareness of the problem, how they and others contribute to the problem, and how these problems affect their lives.

ADVANTAGES OF PROBLEM ANALYSIS
•	The problem can be broken down into manageable and definable chunks. This enables a clear prioritization of factors and help focus objectives.
•	There is a better understanding of the problem and its often interconnected and even contradictory causes.
•	It can help establish whether further information, evidence or resources are required to make a strong case, or build a convincing solution.
•	Present issues, rather than future or past issues are dealt with and identified.
•	The purpose of analysis often helps build a shared sense of understanding, purpose and action. (Adapted from ODI 2009).
DISADVANTAGES.
•	It may be difficult to understand all effects and causes of a problem right from the beginning.
•	It requires time to bring all relevant stakeholders together and discuss and priotise their problems.   
CONCLUSION
Problem trees do more than just identify the root causes of the problem. They provide a visual breakdown of problems of problems into their symptoms as well as their causes, and furthermore create a visual output that can be understood by anyone. The process can be a useful method in building a community’s awareness of the problem, how they and others contribute to the problem, and how these problems affect their lives. This may also be an important step when attempting to build support for any interventions, new techniques or improved technologies.

OBJECTIVE ANALYSIS
This is  an  approach used to describe the situation in the future once  identified problems have been remedied, depicting the ends and the means in a diagram called “objective tree.”
The negative situations of the problem tree are converted into solutions, expressed as” positive achievements”. For example, in the shown example “High Incidences of Malnutrition” is  converted into “Reduced Incidences of Malnutrition”. These positive achievements are in fact objectives, and are presented in an objective tree showing the means/ends relationship.
Since the negative situations of the problem tree have to be reformulated into positive situations that are desirable and realistically achievable, it is of great importance that all stakeholders are involved in the discussions giving their feedback. Appropriate consultations will help to consider priorities, assess how realistic the achievements of some objectives might be and identify additional means that might be required to achieve the desired ends. It might also be necessary to reformulate some of the problems, add new problems or remove problems which might not be relevant or suitable.
 Furthermore, an objective tree might show many objectives that cannot be reached at once, for which choices and priorities will have to be made.
Once completed, the objective tree provides a summary picture of the desired future situation, including the means by which ends can be achieved. 
The figure below shows an example of an Objective Analysis as related to Reduced Incidences of Malnutrition.

REFERENCES:
•	EUROPEAN COMMISSION (Editor)(2004):Aid Delivery Methods, Project Cycle, Management Guidelines. Brussels: European Commission-Europe Aid Cooperation Office.
•	FOODGRAINS BANK (Editor) The Problem Tree. Winnipeg: Canadian Food grains Bank
•	MDF (Editor)(2005):MDF Tool: Problem Tree Analysis .Ede: MDF Training and Consultancy.
•	ODI (Editor)(2009):Problem Tree Analysis. Successful Communication: Planning Tools. London Overseas Development Institute. 

THE HISTORY  OF PROJECT MANAGEMENTs	cin
ITRODUCTION
THE TERM PROJECT
The latin word projectum means, “to throw something forwards’.The word “project” originally meant something that comes before anyting else is done.”Whenthe word was initially adopted, it reffered  to a plan of something, not to the act of actually carrying this plan out. Something performed in accordance with a project was called an object. This use of “project “changed in the 1950s when several techniques for project management were introduced. With this advent, the word slightly changed meaning to cover both the objects and objects. However in certain projects there may still exist so called objects and object leaders, reflecting the older use of the words. 
A Project could therefore be defined as a temporary group of activities designed to produce a unique product, service or result, it is temporary in that it has a defined beginning and end time, and therefore has a defined scope and resources. A project is unique in that it is not a routine operation, but a specific set of operations designed to accomplish a singular goal.
THE DEFINITION OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Therefore, project management, then is the application of knowledge, skills and techniques to execute projects effectively and efficiently .It can also be defined  as the application of knowledge s, skills, tools, and techniques to a broad range of activities to meet the requerements of the particular project .For example, the use of methodologies, project life cycles and plans, tools like  Gantt and pert charts. it is a strategic competency for organationitions, enabling them to tie project results to business goals and thus  better compete in their markets.project management  knowledge and practices are best described  in terms of their component processes. These processes can be placed into five process groups namely Initiation, Planning, Execution, controlling and closing, and nine knowledge areas called Projecct intergration management ,Project Scope management, Project Time Management, Project Cost management, Project quality management, Project human Resource management, Project Communications management, Project Risk management  and Project  Procurement management.
PROJECT DRIVERS.
The first project managers were labelled architects, technicians or engineers. Generally, they were multi-skilled generalists that could deal with many situations, and had to have project management skills.Over  time, the drivers for projects have included religious, political and commercial factors, and often a mix of these. Many ancient projects were driven by a religion for example, construction projects like the Giza,Stonehenge, and the Gothic cathedrals, although the cathedrals improved commerce in a town.FlorenceCathedral was all about prestige and commerce. The colosseum  was political in nature and used to promote the Roman Government and provide employment.The great Voyages of exploration were projects driven by commerce but in the name of religion and the monarchy.In the 18/19th century practically all projects in the industrial revolution were commercial in nature like the Iron Bridge, Transatlantic cable, Crystal Palace,and many more.Some projects were strategic  and political, like the Suez and Panama canals, or the U.S.,Canadian or Russian Transcontinental railway but, they were also very important commercial successes as well. I n the 20th century  public works projects emerged to address growth in unemployment like the Hoover Dam and Golden Gate Bridge in the U.S., Ocean liners (Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth) in the UK, and the Maginot line in France. But these projects were not much different from the Parthenon and colosseum,2000 years earlier,which were also major public works projects.
THE ORIGIN OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT 
Project management has existed in some form for thousands of years,after all anything that requires an approach where humans organize effectively to a plan and achieve specific objectives  can be loosely defined as a project.The history of project management  is the history of mega projects of the last 4,500 years that include the Giza Pyramid, the Parthenon, the Colosseum, the Gothic Cathedrals of Europe, the Taj Mahal, and the Transcontinental Railway.These were  not anomalies in history but projects delivered in a systematic way with very similar characteristics to todays’ projects. Typically, they had a project charter, a business justification, and a project sponsor.In close analysis they also followed a similar life –cycle of phases that we use today, incorporating the Project Management Process Groups  which are Initiating, Planning, Executing, Monitoring and Controlling , and Closing.In close examination they also followed  all the nine Project Management Book of Knowledge areas which are Intergration, Scope, Time,Cost, Quality, Human Resources, Communications, Risk, and Procurement. 
DEVELOPMENTS IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT  SINCE ITS ORIGIN.
THE GIZA PYRAMID 2580-2500 B.C
For most people, the starting point in the history of Project Management is the Great Pyramid a Giza, a monumental structure for its time,2550 B.C.E .The Egyptian Project Management had over 200 years of experience with pyramid building  which saw a clear evolution in learning.The approach was based on trial and error, or prototyping.This  can be seen from the Bent Pyramid at DAHSUR, clearly  experiperimental, with two different  slope g radients for the sides at the lower and upper levels.This experience gave the Ancient Egyptians the confidence to take on a project size of the Giza Pyramid.With a  clear Project charter and a deadline to deliver the project before the Pharaoh died,appromately 20 years ,the had to elect the Projec t Manager.The Technical challenges of this to  completing the last third and mounting the cap stone.Giza was built in 20 years and the astounding accuracy of measurements, the level base, and the precision with which 40 to 60 ton blocks were laid, stuns engineers today.
ROMAN EMPIRE (1ST CENTURY B.C.E.-500)
In the History of project management  this period saw the Roman Empire reach its climax, where 25% of the world’s population were part of it.Roman projects were driven primarily by the state of the  draft animals and increasingly more sophisticated  equipment like giant cranes.The Romans were masters of Project Management in creating a massive building program across their empire that included cities and towns, public buildings, and infrasture like roads, water and sewers.The Romans ability to organize stemmed from the military, and the ability to harness a multitude of skills .Keeping to a schedule and Cost Control were both critical in all Roman Projects as Romans broadly propagated these projects through out the Roman Empire.
THE 15TH CENTURY AND RENAISSANCE (1450-1500)
In the History of Project Management, this period was dominated by the Renaissance.The closure of the trade routes east by the fall of Constantinople(1453) spurs the age of exploration driven by spain,Portugal. From a Project Management perspective the development of new tools and technologies namely the Astrolabe,the Caravel, and advances in cartograghy facilitated these journeys of exploration.